Abstract
“When we speak of Vadakkan Paatukal, it is impossible to avoid mentioning Puthuram Veettil Aromal Chekavar’s sister Unniyarcha and Mathileri Kanni ”. Historians have identified them as symbols of the distinctive qualities of feminine power, determination, willpower, courage, and the spirit of freedom. It is from such identifications that the necessity of this study arises, and with it, the beginning of this work. The possibility of such a study becomes evident through the emergence of oral history. The unique feature of oral history studies lies in recording the voices of those silenced and excluded from mainstream history. Human society was first formed through oral speech; literacy appeared very late in history . After the first conference on oral history, its possibilities began to be discussed at various levels . Lucia Passiani, in her paper, questioned the objectivity of history. She argued that what needs to be read in oral traditions are not merely the spoken words, but the silences—since it is in these silences that ideology operates.
Keywords
Vadakkan Pattu
Gender and Patriarchy
Oral History
Women’s History
Sexual Politics
References
1. Unniyarcha was a legendary warrior heroine from northern Kerala, India, celebrated in the region’s folk ballads (Vadakkan Pattukal). She was born into the famous Puthooram Veedu of Kadathanad within the Chekavar warrior lineage. Renowned for her exceptional valor and skill in Kalaripayattu (traditional martial arts), she was particularly noted for her mastery of the urumi, a flexible, whip-like sword, and was the sister of the famed warrior Aromal Chekavar.
2. Mathilerikkanni is a heroine from the Vadakkan Pattukal. She is the daughter of a king from Venadu and is known for her martial skills and for supporting her husband in battle, helping him achieve victory.
3. (PANIKKATTI, 2008, p.I)
4. Walter J. Ong notes that writing was initially limited to small groups, meaning most of human culture evolved within an oral framework (ONG, 2005, p. 2). This reminds us that oral traditions like Vadakkan Pattu are not "primitive," but the original form of cultural memory and communication.
5. In 1979, the first international conference on Oral History was held at the University of Essex in England. The conference discussed the possibilities of oral history at various levels.
6. (HUSSAIN, 2011, p. 509)
7. Dalits, meaning “broken” or “scattered” in Sanskrit, are a historically marginalized group in India, often referred to as “untouchables.” Excluded from the traditional Hindu caste system, they have faced social, economic, and cultural discrimination for centuries.
8. The Pulaya (or puluva ) are a Dalit community in Kerala, India, historically classified as a Scheduled Caste. Traditionally landless agricultural laborers, they faced severe social, economic, and ritual discrimination under the caste system and lived in conditions of extreme deprivation and servitude to upper-caste landowners.
9. (APPUNNI NAMBIAR, 1960, p. vi)
10. (PANIKKATTI, 2008, p.IV)
11. (APPUNNI NAMBIAR, 1960, p.vii)
12. There is very little clarity regarding the period in which these songs were composed. Chelanattu. Achutamenon asserts that the aromal chekevar songs from this genre were composed as early as the 12th century, while the Othenan songs were composed four or five hundred years later.
13. According to Panikkatti (2008, p. V), the earliest of these songs were composed sometime during the early 16th century and the latest ones in the 19th century.
14. (PAVITRAN, 1999, p. 167)
15. Thacholi Pattu narrates the legendary adventures of Thacholi Othenan, the most celebrated hero of the ballads. These songs highlight his unmatched skill in Kalaripayattu, his duels, acts of valor, and his role as a defender of justice, portraying him as an iconic warrior figure in North Malabar folklore.
16. Puthuram Pattu revolves around the heroic exploits of Aromal Chekavar, his courageous sister Unniyarcha, and his son Aromal Unni. The songs celebrate their bravery, martial skills, and the legacy of the Puthuram family, making them central figures in the ballad tradition.
17. Ottappattu consists of individual songs that narrate the stories of different men and women, each told separately. Unlike Thacholi Pattu and Puthuram Pattu, which follow the continuous exploits of recurring heroes, the characters in Ottappattu usually appear in only one song, making each ballad a standalone story.
18. Historians hold differing views on the classification of Vadakkan Pattu. William Logan, P. Govindhan Pillai, and R. Narayan Panikkar consider only the Thacholi Pattu as Vadakkan Pattu. In contrast, Mahakavi Ulloor includes both Thacholi Pattu and Puthuram Pattu within the category. M. C. Appunni Namppiran further expands this classification by including Ottappattu as well.
19. The collection of Vadakkan Pattu has been contributed to by many scholars and collectors over time, including Gundert, Dais, Logan,Percy Macqueen, Chelattu Achuthamenon, and M. C. Appunni Nair. Their efforts helped preserve and document the ballads, ensuring that the heroic tales of North Malabar remained accessible for study and performance.
20. (VARIER, M. RAGAVA, 1982, p. 11)
21. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p. 140).
22. Uma Chakravarti argues that this threefold oppression is unique to Dalit women because it combines caste-based exploitation, economic subjugation, and patriarchal control within their families. This makes their experiences qualitatively different from those of upper-caste women, who may suffer gender discrimination but do not face systemic caste and class exploitation. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 4)
23. Chakravarti points out that sexual violence against Dalit women functions doubly: it allows dominant castes to assert power over Dalit women while humiliating Dalit men, thereby reinforcing the caste order and its gendered hierarchies (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 142).
24. By custom, women of the lower castes were prohibited from covering their breasts with an upper cloth. The king, however, manipulated this social restriction to serve his own interests
25. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p.140).
26. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p.158).
27. As Chakravarti notes, control over women's sexuality was crucial to maintain caste purity, ensure inheritance of land within caste boundaries, and preserve ritual status. This "closed structure" of land, women, and ritual quality formed the very foundation of Hindu caste society. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 142).
28. Ilaiah Shepherd emphasizes that Dalit women are fully integrated into labor systems, not just as an economic necessity but as a cultural reality that shapes their identity and work ethic. Their labor simultaneously sustains their families and reinforces their subordinate position in caste hierarchy. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 82)
29. Leela Dube shows that women perform indispensable roles in agriculture, craft production, service occupations, and ritual work tied to caste. Even when men leave caste-linked work due to low status or poor returns, women often continue it, sometimes carrying a double burden.
This is visible among Dalit and lower-caste women, who sustain household production and caste identity under social and patriarchal constraints.
2. Mathilerikkanni is a heroine from the Vadakkan Pattukal. She is the daughter of a king from Venadu and is known for her martial skills and for supporting her husband in battle, helping him achieve victory.
3. (PANIKKATTI, 2008, p.I)
4. Walter J. Ong notes that writing was initially limited to small groups, meaning most of human culture evolved within an oral framework (ONG, 2005, p. 2). This reminds us that oral traditions like Vadakkan Pattu are not "primitive," but the original form of cultural memory and communication.
5. In 1979, the first international conference on Oral History was held at the University of Essex in England. The conference discussed the possibilities of oral history at various levels.
6. (HUSSAIN, 2011, p. 509)
7. Dalits, meaning “broken” or “scattered” in Sanskrit, are a historically marginalized group in India, often referred to as “untouchables.” Excluded from the traditional Hindu caste system, they have faced social, economic, and cultural discrimination for centuries.
8. The Pulaya (or puluva ) are a Dalit community in Kerala, India, historically classified as a Scheduled Caste. Traditionally landless agricultural laborers, they faced severe social, economic, and ritual discrimination under the caste system and lived in conditions of extreme deprivation and servitude to upper-caste landowners.
9. (APPUNNI NAMBIAR, 1960, p. vi)
10. (PANIKKATTI, 2008, p.IV)
11. (APPUNNI NAMBIAR, 1960, p.vii)
12. There is very little clarity regarding the period in which these songs were composed. Chelanattu. Achutamenon asserts that the aromal chekevar songs from this genre were composed as early as the 12th century, while the Othenan songs were composed four or five hundred years later.
13. According to Panikkatti (2008, p. V), the earliest of these songs were composed sometime during the early 16th century and the latest ones in the 19th century.
14. (PAVITRAN, 1999, p. 167)
15. Thacholi Pattu narrates the legendary adventures of Thacholi Othenan, the most celebrated hero of the ballads. These songs highlight his unmatched skill in Kalaripayattu, his duels, acts of valor, and his role as a defender of justice, portraying him as an iconic warrior figure in North Malabar folklore.
16. Puthuram Pattu revolves around the heroic exploits of Aromal Chekavar, his courageous sister Unniyarcha, and his son Aromal Unni. The songs celebrate their bravery, martial skills, and the legacy of the Puthuram family, making them central figures in the ballad tradition.
17. Ottappattu consists of individual songs that narrate the stories of different men and women, each told separately. Unlike Thacholi Pattu and Puthuram Pattu, which follow the continuous exploits of recurring heroes, the characters in Ottappattu usually appear in only one song, making each ballad a standalone story.
18. Historians hold differing views on the classification of Vadakkan Pattu. William Logan, P. Govindhan Pillai, and R. Narayan Panikkar consider only the Thacholi Pattu as Vadakkan Pattu. In contrast, Mahakavi Ulloor includes both Thacholi Pattu and Puthuram Pattu within the category. M. C. Appunni Namppiran further expands this classification by including Ottappattu as well.
19. The collection of Vadakkan Pattu has been contributed to by many scholars and collectors over time, including Gundert, Dais, Logan,Percy Macqueen, Chelattu Achuthamenon, and M. C. Appunni Nair. Their efforts helped preserve and document the ballads, ensuring that the heroic tales of North Malabar remained accessible for study and performance.
20. (VARIER, M. RAGAVA, 1982, p. 11)
21. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p. 140).
22. Uma Chakravarti argues that this threefold oppression is unique to Dalit women because it combines caste-based exploitation, economic subjugation, and patriarchal control within their families. This makes their experiences qualitatively different from those of upper-caste women, who may suffer gender discrimination but do not face systemic caste and class exploitation. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 4)
23. Chakravarti points out that sexual violence against Dalit women functions doubly: it allows dominant castes to assert power over Dalit women while humiliating Dalit men, thereby reinforcing the caste order and its gendered hierarchies (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 142).
24. By custom, women of the lower castes were prohibited from covering their breasts with an upper cloth. The king, however, manipulated this social restriction to serve his own interests
25. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p.140).
26. All translations from Malayalam in this paper are by the author (p.158).
27. As Chakravarti notes, control over women's sexuality was crucial to maintain caste purity, ensure inheritance of land within caste boundaries, and preserve ritual status. This "closed structure" of land, women, and ritual quality formed the very foundation of Hindu caste society. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 142).
28. Ilaiah Shepherd emphasizes that Dalit women are fully integrated into labor systems, not just as an economic necessity but as a cultural reality that shapes their identity and work ethic. Their labor simultaneously sustains their families and reinforces their subordinate position in caste hierarchy. (CHAKRAVARTI, 2018, p. 82)
29. Leela Dube shows that women perform indispensable roles in agriculture, craft production, service occupations, and ritual work tied to caste. Even when men leave caste-linked work due to low status or poor returns, women often continue it, sometimes carrying a double burden.
This is visible among Dalit and lower-caste women, who sustain household production and caste identity under social and patriarchal constraints.
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Najiya Sheri K.M.
(2026).
Re-reading the Silences: Patriarchy, Gender, and Sexual Politics in Vadakkan Pattu.
Kerala History and Studies Journal,
1
(1)
, 287-297
.
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Najiya Sheri K.M.. "Re-reading the Silences: Patriarchy, Gender, and Sexual Politics in Vadakkan Pattu." Kerala History and Studies Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, 2026, pp. 287-297.
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MLA 9th edition
Najiya Sheri K.M.. "Re-reading the Silences: Patriarchy, Gender, and Sexual Politics in Vadakkan Pattu." Kerala History and Studies Journal 1, no. 1 (2026): 287-297.
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